key terms
bona fide occupational qualification
consciousness-raising
equal pay
occupational segregation
sex roles
sexual harassment
sisterhood
In the summer of
1977, Jerri Allyn and Anne Gauldin, artists with deep roots in the feminist art
community of Los Angeles wound their way up the coast of California en route to
Santa Cruz.[1] Along the way, they shared snippets of their
lives and uncovered a common history as waitresses.[2] Gauldin and Allyn decided to form The Waitresses.
In film and television the waitress had become a kind of “everywoman” who reflected societal shifts brought about by the women's movement. The 1974 Academy Award–winning film Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore follows the personal journey of a recently widowed mother who finds work as a waitress. This incredibly successful film gave rise to Alice Doesn't Day, a one day consumer boycott and strike organized by the National Organization for Women on 29 October, 1975 in which women were asked not spend any money or perform any labor on this one day to demonstrate their anger at sexual discrimination. Similarly, Alice, a situation comedy that debuted in 1976, about a single mother who worked as a waitress explored a wide range of issues.
In film and television the waitress had become a kind of “everywoman” who reflected societal shifts brought about by the women's movement. The 1974 Academy Award–winning film Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore follows the personal journey of a recently widowed mother who finds work as a waitress. This incredibly successful film gave rise to Alice Doesn't Day, a one day consumer boycott and strike organized by the National Organization for Women on 29 October, 1975 in which women were asked not spend any money or perform any labor on this one day to demonstrate their anger at sexual discrimination. Similarly, Alice, a situation comedy that debuted in 1976, about a single mother who worked as a waitress explored a wide range of issues.
 |
| figure 1 The Waitresses |
The Waitresses emerged
from Allyn and Gauldin’s intense desire to explore with other women their experiences as waitresses. The initial group of women engaged in ten
months of consciousness-raising before creating their first performance pieces. Gradually, from their personal experiences,
the women uncovered “stereotypes, i.e. waitresses as mother/nurturer, servant/slave,
and sex object.”[5] This
process represented the ideal outcome of consciousness-raising, which was meant
to help women understand that the sexism they experienced was not individual,
but systemic in a patriarchal society.
The characters (figure 1) developed by the Waitresses derived from the various roles waitresses represented, the nurturer, the servant, and the sex object. In this regard, their work reflects the analysis of patriarchy offered by early radical feminists groups who attempted to explore characteristics stereotyped as feminine while combating the prevalent idea that women were, because of these characteristics, of necessity inferior to men. In particular, these analyses often rested on detailed dissection of sex roles, the term used in the 1970s to talk about women’s limited positions in society.
While economic equality has been seen as the domain of liberal or reform oriented feminists, more recent historical investigations have revealed the multifaceted coalitions that put issues such as equal pay and employment discrimination on the national agenda.[3] In many ways, the work of the Waitresses has more in common with the efforts of women completely outside the feminist movement than it does with other women’s movement members. Dorothy Sue Cobble has recently shown that a group she terms “labor feminists” also contributed to the development of an alternate position of women’s work during this time.[4] These women sought economic equality for women without denying the differences that existed between men and women, or forcing women to adhere to a male defined labor standard
 |
| figure 2 Ready To Order Announcement Brochure Designed by Anne Gauldin, offset print, 22 x 8.5 inches, 1978 |
Occupational Segregation
The Waitresses' first performance Ready To Order (April
25–May 1, 1978) occurred in restaurants in Venice, California. By appearing in restaurants,
The Waitresses brought their message to the group they most wanted to reach,
female food service workers. The flyers (figure 2) they distributed contained information, in both English and Spanish, about panels they organized in conjunction with a wide range of groups, including the Westside Community for Independent Living, Fat Underground, the Asian Women's Rap Group, and the Association for Black Feminists.
The vignettes in Ready To Order illustrate the ability of the Waitresses to make entertaining seemingly mundane topics like as occupational segregation, the tendency of employers to assign specific work to the sexes based solely on gender roles. Despite the fact that Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act banned segregated employment practices, it was a well known within the food service industry that certain high end restaurants hired only male waiters, just as many bars only employed female cocktail waitresses despite any bona fide occupational qualification, a requirement of the job specified tied to sex, that justified the practice.
The vignettes in Ready To Order illustrate the ability of the Waitresses to make entertaining seemingly mundane topics like as occupational segregation, the tendency of employers to assign specific work to the sexes based solely on gender roles. Despite the fact that Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act banned segregated employment practices, it was a well known within the food service industry that certain high end restaurants hired only male waiters, just as many bars only employed female cocktail waitresses despite any bona fide occupational qualification, a requirement of the job specified tied to sex, that justified the practice.
In Frederico and the Shadow, written by Denise
Yarfitz Pierre, a waitress transformed
into the snooty French waiter Frederico. Her motivation was equal pay, waiters
earned a higher wage, garnered larger tips, and enjoyed greater prestige for doing the same work as waitresses, but she reaped psychological
benefits as well. Secure in his position as an arbiter of taste,
Frederico freely insulted patrons and focused on his role as an “orchestrator”
of a “symphony,” leaving the task of cleaning up to bus boys.
Sex Role Stereotyping
In another
series of vignettes, titled Beauty is
Money (figure 4), The Waitresses dramatized the links between occupational segregation and sexual harassment. Since female food servers tended
to work in less prestigious establishments, they received lower wagers and
dependent more on patrons for tips. For
many waitresses that meant their appearance impacted their economic well
being. For the cocktail waitress in
particular this aspect of her employment was key. In one
vignette
 |
| figure 4 Anne Gauldin performing Beauty is Money, Ready to Order? Jett's Cafe & Art Haus, Los Angeles, CA April28, 1978 photo credit: Maria Karras |
Sisterhood
 |
| figure 5 Jamie Wildperson as Wonder Waitress, Ready to Order? Lafayette's Cafe, Venice, CA April27, 1978 photo credit: Maria Karras |
Jamie Wildman, a member of The Waitresses, created the
character of Wonder Waitress as a symbol for women's solidarity and empowerment. She played off the
image of the comic-book heroine Wonder Woman, who enjoyed a resurgence of popularity
due to the television series of the same name that ran from 1976 to 1979.[7] In
one performance, Wonder Waitress swooped in to
rescue her harried sister waitresses from harassing customers, rude managers,
and abusive cooks. In another piece, a seemingly normal waitress morphed
into Wonder Waitress, à la Clark Kent transitioning into Superman, by ripping
open her shirt to expose her Wonder Waitress uniform while declaring "This
is a job for wonder waitress!"
This sisterhood,
however, went beyond helping waitresses to feel good about their work. Wonder Waitress Takes a Look at the Union
(May 1979) performed at a labor organizing conference.[9] The group’s research revealed that less than
1% of waitresses were unionized and that unions proved unresponsive to issues
important to female workers, such as child care and health insurance.[10] In this performance, the boss shows little sympathy for a harried waitress. Wonder Waitress swoops in to her rescue proclaiming "this is a job for Wonder Waitress," and admonishes both
the rude patrons and the uncaring boss to “be respectful and generous and … look
for the union label.”[11]
 |
| figure 6 |
Sexual Harassment
Making It Safe For Waitresses (August
1979) involved a series of performances that highlighted sexual
harassment. The Waitresses
re-created different working environments within the Enterprising Fish Company,
located in Ocean Park, California to raise consciousness about the sexual
harassment that waitresses experienced every day.. A crowd of restaurant goers traveled from “The Greasy Spoon,” “Hole in the Wall Café,”
and “The Grinder,” to “The Aware Inn”
and “The Gathering.” At “The Grinder” (figure 6) waitresses wore armor to shield themselves from sexual harassment, while at
“The Aware Inn” they shed their armor and worked in an atmosphere of mutual respect. “The Gathering” depicted a utopian restaurant
where service work commanded respect, and waitresses who worked for wages, were
not forced to trade on their sexuality for tips
The art work of The Waitresses reflects widespread social movement activism to address the economic and social status of women. Organizations like Wages for Housework and efforts to pass the Equal Rights Amendment also sought to recognize all women’s labor as valuable and to challenge the material, as well as the political, circumstances of American women’s lives.
Discussion Questions/written assignments
1. Compare the work of The Waitresses to the Manifestos in the paired readings. In what ways are the ideas expressed in The Waitresses' art reflected in these manifestos?
2. Which format do you think would be more effective for mobilizing women, art works like the Waitresses, Manifestos in the paired readings, or events like Alice Doesn't Day? Why?
3. Watch the video interview with The Waitresses. How do the artists view their role in history of women's activism?
4. Watch an episode of Alice (available on amazon instant video). How does the use of the figure of the waitress compare in this popular sitcom to the use in The Waitresses' performances?
5. Explore Wages for Housework. What issues and approaches are common to that movement and The Waitresses' art work?
6. Perhaps the best known example of occupational segregation today in the restaurant business is the national restaurant chain Hooters. Write a paper analyzing Hooters using the concepts introduced in this lesson.
to come, comparative lesson The Liberation of Aunt Jemima (1972) Betye Saar
Research paper topics:
1. Select one of the additional readings. Contextualize the work of The Waitresses within the larger movements for women's economic rights or the movement to end sexual harassment.
2. Using Dishing It Out, The Waitresses art and the manifestos discuss the issues of class and race involved in organizing waitresses.
3. Research contemporary efforts to organize waitresses or to combat sexual discrimination in the restaurant industry. How do these efforts compare to those of The Waitresses.
Paired readings:
The Feminists: A Political Organization to Annihilate Sex Roles (1970)
The art work of The Waitresses reflects widespread social movement activism to address the economic and social status of women. Organizations like Wages for Housework and efforts to pass the Equal Rights Amendment also sought to recognize all women’s labor as valuable and to challenge the material, as well as the political, circumstances of American women’s lives.
Discussion Questions/written assignments
1. Compare the work of The Waitresses to the Manifestos in the paired readings. In what ways are the ideas expressed in The Waitresses' art reflected in these manifestos?
2. Which format do you think would be more effective for mobilizing women, art works like the Waitresses, Manifestos in the paired readings, or events like Alice Doesn't Day? Why?
3. Watch the video interview with The Waitresses. How do the artists view their role in history of women's activism?
4. Watch an episode of Alice (available on amazon instant video). How does the use of the figure of the waitress compare in this popular sitcom to the use in The Waitresses' performances?
5. Explore Wages for Housework. What issues and approaches are common to that movement and The Waitresses' art work?
6. Perhaps the best known example of occupational segregation today in the restaurant business is the national restaurant chain Hooters. Write a paper analyzing Hooters using the concepts introduced in this lesson.
to come, comparative lesson The Liberation of Aunt Jemima (1972) Betye Saar
Research paper topics:
1. Select one of the additional readings. Contextualize the work of The Waitresses within the larger movements for women's economic rights or the movement to end sexual harassment.
2. Using Dishing It Out, The Waitresses art and the manifestos discuss the issues of class and race involved in organizing waitresses.
3. Research contemporary efforts to organize waitresses or to combat sexual discrimination in the restaurant industry. How do these efforts compare to those of The Waitresses.
Paired readings:
The Feminists: A Political Organization to Annihilate Sex Roles (1970)
Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement: Chicago Women's Liberation Union, Hyde Park Chapter (1972)
Additional readings
Additional readings
Carrie N Baker, The Women's Movement Against Sexual Harassment (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
Dorothy Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the Twentieth Century (University of Illinois Press, 1992).
Dorothy Sue Cobble The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004)
Paired Images
A Waitress at Duval's Restaurant, Auguste Renoir c 1875
Corner of a Café-Concert Edouard Manet probably 1878-80
Dorothy Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the Twentieth Century (University of Illinois Press, 1992).
Dorothy Sue Cobble The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004)
Paired Images
A Waitress at Duval's Restaurant, Auguste Renoir c 1875
Corner of a Café-Concert Edouard Manet probably 1878-80
BAR AT THE FOLIES-BERGÈRE Edouard Manet 1881-82
Resources
Jerri Allyn and Anne Gauldin, eds. The Waitresses Unpeeled: Performance Art and Life (Los Angeles, Calif.: Ben Maltz Gallery, Otis College of Art and Design, 2011). Jerri Allyn's waitresses webpage
Video interview with members of the Waitresses
Resources
Jerri Allyn and Anne Gauldin, eds. The Waitresses Unpeeled: Performance Art and Life (Los Angeles, Calif.: Ben Maltz Gallery, Otis College of Art and Design, 2011). Jerri Allyn's waitresses webpage
Video interview with members of the Waitresses
[1] The members of
the group all met at the Woman’s Building, a public center for women’s culture
created in 1973 as a place for women to explore their identities as women
through the arts.
[2] The group
eventually included Leslie Belt, Patti Nicklaus, Jamie Wild and Denise Yarfitz,
Chutney Gunderson, Anne Mavor, and Denise Yarfitz, Elizabeth Canelake and Anita
Green, in addition to many members of the Woman’s Building who worked with the
group during its seven year history
[3] Dorothy Sue Cobble The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004) and Carrie N Baker, The Women's Movement Against Sexual Harassment (Cambridge University Press, 2007).
[3] Dorothy Sue Cobble The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004) and Carrie N Baker, The Women's Movement Against Sexual Harassment (Cambridge University Press, 2007).
[4]Cobble, The
Other Women's Movement, 3.
[5]Flyer for Ready To Order c. April –May 1978 in The Waitresses 1977-1984, n.p.
[6]
“Frederico and the Shadow” in. The
Waitresses 1977-1984, n.p.
[7] Interesting,
Wonder Woman had deep roots in mythologies that some second wave feminists
found fruitful. Wonder woman was an
Amazon, a mythological tribe of warring women who used men solely for
reproductive purposes. The character
Wonder Woman is named Diana after the virgin goddess of the hunt, who like the
Amazons had little need for men and was an excellent archer.
[8] “Wonder
Waitress, 1978,” in The Waitresses
1977-1984, n.p.
[9] Script of
Wonder Waitress, Performed by Jerri Allyn, Leslie Belt, Anita Green, Chutney
Gunderson Berry, and Denise Yarfitz Pierre from a script written by Anne
Gauldin and Jamie Wildman-Webber at the Fifth Annual Southwest Labor
Conference, held at California State University, Dominguez Hills in May 1979,
possession of the author.
[10] From undated
publicity materials circa 1979, possession of the author.
[11] Script of
Wonder Waitress.
[12]Doan, The
Women's Movement Against Sexual Harassment, 12-13.
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